RATIOS USED FOR CREDIT ASSESSMENT

 RATIOS USED FOR CREDIT ASSESSMENT

A. LIQUIDITY RATIO
1. Current Ratio
Formula: Current Assets/Current Liabilities
Current asset and current liabilities are those receivable or payable respectively within a
period of 12 months or one operating cycle.
It is a measure of liquidity of the company. A company with a current ratio less than one
does not have the capital on hand to meet its short-term obligations if they were all due
at once, while a current ratio greater than one indicates that the company should be
able to remain solvent in the short-term.
The ratio in standalone basis will not provide a meaningful interpretation. An in-depth
analysis of the quality of the current assets and liabilities will provide a better picture of
the company’s liquidity position.
For example, a company may have a very high current ratio but their accounts
receivable is low quality. Perhaps they have not been able to collect from their
customers quickly which may be hidden in the current ratio. Further If inventory is
unable to be sold, the current ratio may still look acceptable, but the company may be
headed for default.
A current ratio less than one would not be concerning if the company has a much higher
receivables turnover than payables turnover. For example, retail companies collect very
quickly from consumers but have a long time to pay their suppliers.
2. Liquid ratio / Acid Test ratio / Quick ratio
Formula: (Current Assets – Inventory – Prepaid expenses) / (Current Liabilities –
Bank borrowings)
The ratio indicates the backing available to liquid liabilities in the form of liquid assets.
Liquid assets are those current assets which can be converted to cash without reduction
in value and almost immediately.
B. TURNOVER RATIO
1. Fixed Assets turnover ratio
Formula: Net Sales/Fixed Assets (WDV)
The ratio indicates the capability of organization to achieve sales viz-a-viz the
investment in fixed assets. Higher the ratio, better the efficiency of the organization.

2. Current Assets turnover ratio
Formula: Net Sales/Current Assets
The ratio indicates the capability of organization to achieve sales viz-a-viz the
investment in current assets. Higher the ratio, better the efficiency of the organization.
3. Working capital turnover ratio
Formula: Net Sales/Working capital
The ratio indicates the capability of organization to achieve sales viz-a-viz the
investment in working capital. Higher the ratio, better the efficiency of the organization.
4. Inventory/Stock turnover ratio
Formula: Cost of goods sold/Average inventory
Net sales/Average Inventory
Cost of goods sold/Cost inventory
Net sales/Closing inventory
In normal condition, a higher ratio is desirable. However low level of inventory may also
lead to the company not being able to adhere to delivery schedules. Though low level of
inventory maintenance will reduce the carrying cost and thereby higher profits,
sometimes higher maintenance of inventory may also lead to increase in volume of
sales thereby leading to higher profits.
5. Debtors Turnover ratio
Formula: Net Credit sales/Closing sundry debtors
The average collection period computed as above should be compared with the normal
credit period allowed to customers. If the average collection period is more than the
normal credit period, it may indicate over investment in debtors, over extension of credit
period, liberalization of credit terms and ineffective collection procedure among others.
6. Capital turnover ratio
Formula: Sales/Capital Employed
The ratio indicates the efficiency of the organization in respect of capital utilization.
Higher ratio is desirable.

C. SOLVENCY RATIO
1. Debt Equity ratio
Formula: External/Shareholders funds’
Long term liabilities/Shareholder Funds
If the ratio is higher, it indicates higher external borrowings, and it increases the risk of
investment in such an organization. The best possible to way to increase earnings to
shareholders is to borrow funds from outside because
(i) Cost of equity is high
(ii) Return on investment paid to creditors is a tax-deductible expenditure
2. Proprietary ratio
Formula: Total Assets/ Owners funds
Fixed Assets/Owners funds
Current Assets/Owners funds
The ratio indicates the extent to which the owner’s funds are sunk in different kind of
assets. If owners’ funds exceed fixed asset, it indicates owner’s funds are used to
finance current assets and if vice-versa, it indicates that fixed assets are financed by
long term or short term creditors.
3. Fixed assets/Capital Employed ratio
Formula: (Fixed assets/Capital Employed) X 100
A high ratio indicates a major portion of long term funds is being used for fixed assets
rather than working capital. A high ratio coupled with declining current ratio indicates
urgent need for introduction of long term funds for financing working capital.
4. Interest coverage ratio.
Formula: Profit before Interest and taxes / Interest charges
The ratio indicates protection available to the lenders of long term capital in the form of
funds available to pay interest charges. Though a high ratio is desirable, a very high
ratio indicates under-utilization of borrowing capacity of the organization.

5. Debt service coverage ratio.
The ratio is calculated in two ways, Gross DSCR and Net DSCR
Formula:
Gross DSCR = (Cash accruals + Term loan interest)/ (Term loan installment +
Term loan interest
Net DSCR = Cash accruals / Term loan installment
The ratio indicates the level of serviceability of debt viz-a-viz the cash accruals
generated by the company. The higher the ratio, better the company’s financial position
to service interest and installment.
D. PROFITABILITY RATIO
1. Gross profit ratio
Formula: (Gross profit/Net sales) X 100
By comparing Gross Profit percentage to Net Sales we can arrive at the Gross Profit
Ratio which indicates the manufacturing efficiency as well as the pricing policy of the
concern.
Alternatively, since Gross Profit is equal to Sales minus Cost of Goods Sold, it can also
be interpreted as below:
Alternate formula = [ (Sales – Cost of goods sold)/ Net Sales] x 100
A higher Gross Profit Ratio indicates efficiency in production of the unit.
2. Net Profit ratio
Formula: (Net profit/Net sales) X 100
The ratio indicates that portion of the sales which is available to the owners after the
consideration of all types of expenses and costs, either operating or non-operating,
normal or abnormal. A high ratio is considered desirable.
3. Operating ratio
Formula: {(Manufacturing cost of goods sold + operating expenses) / Net sales}
X100
A high ratio indicates that only a small margin of sales is available to meet expenses in
the form of interest, dividend and other-operating expenses.

E. OVERALL PROFITABILITY RATIO
1. Return on assets (ROA)
Formula: (Net profit/Assets) X 100
It measures the profitability of investments and a higher ratio is desirable. The ratio
does not indicate the profitability of various sources of funds, which finance the total
assets.
2. Return on capital employed (ROCE)
Formula: (Net profit + Interest on long term sources) / Capital employed
The ratio indicates the profitability of capital employed. A higher ratio indicates a better
and profitable use of long term funds of owners and creditors.
3. Return on shareholders’ funds
Formula: (Net profit after taxes + total shareholders’ funds) X 100
The ratio indicates whether the firm has earned sufficient returns for its shareholders or
not. A higher ratio is desirable.
F. MISCELLANEOUS RATIO
1.Capital gearing ratio.
Formula: Fixed Income Bearing securities / Equity capital
A high ration indicates that in the capital structure, fixed income bearing securities are
more in comparison to the equity capital and company will be highly geared which is
considered a highly unstable situation. A high gearing ratio is advantageous from the
equity shareholders’ point of view.
2. Earnings per share (EPS)
Formula: (Net Profit after taxes – Preference dividend) / Number of equity shares
outstanding
The ratio is calculated based on current profit and not based on retained profit. The ratio
only indicates the profits available to shareholders on per share basis and not the
quantum of earnings paid to owners by way of dividend or how much of earnings is
retained in the business.

3. Price earnings ratio (P/E ratio)
Formula: Market price per share / Earning per share
The ratio measures the expectation of the investors and an ideal investor will compare
between the current price and future EPS also.
4. Dividend payment ratio (D/P ratio)
Formula: (Dividend per share / Earning per share) X 100
The ratio indicates the policy of the management to pay cash dividend.
1 - D/P ratio indicates the retained profits in the business available for future expansion.

Caiib BFM strategy

 BFM::;;

The strategy for the study of Bank Financial Management which many people finds difficult to clear. If you study properly, it is easy to clear the BFM. This subject also contains 4 modules, they are;

-International Banking

-Risk Management

-Treasury Management

-Balance Sheet Management

Many people do not correlate the syllabus of the subject with day to day banking activity. So they find it difficult to score and understand this subject. But this not true, this subject is very much important which will increase your knowledge regarding top management & middle management functioning of your bank as well as banking as a whole industry.

All the modules are equally important, but you may clear the paper with three modules study also. Module A & B are relatively easy and scoring as well. Let us discuss strategy for each module.

Module A-International Banking

Important topics are Exchange Rates and Forex Business, Basics for Forex Derivatives, Documentary LC, and Facilities for Exporters & Importers

Rapid reading or bullet point reading is quite useful for this module. Practice numerical again and again.

Many numerical/case studies are asked from this module which are quite easy as compared to Module B & Module D case studies. Refer the case studies from McMillan given at the end of the topic. Also N.S.Toor book has many numerical and case studies. Questions are asked on Exchange rates, Shipment Finance etc.

Module B-Risk Management

All chapters are equally important as they are interlinked to each other. Again focus more on case studies/numericals given in Apendix at the end of chapter. Maximum case studies are asked from this module. Though short notes are useful for this module I would suggest McMillan reading for this module because some questions are twisted type for which you require details of the concept which is hard to get from short notes. RBI website contains FAQs which are quite useful for this modules, you should read them at least once.

Module C- Treasury Management

Important topics are Introduction, Types of treasury products, Treasury Risk Management, Treasury and Asset-Liability Management.

Mostly questions asked on this module are theoretical type, so through reading of McMillan is important. If you don’t get time then you can skip this module or read short notes since the weighted of this module for exam point of view is low according to me as compared to Module A&B. But those who wish to make carrier or work in treasury department, this is the best module to learn.

Module-D Balance Sheet Management

Important chapters are Components of ALM in Bank’s Balance Sheet, Capital and banking Regulation,, Capital Adequacy, Asset Classification and Provisioning Norms, Interest rate Risk management.

Though McMillan book contain sufficient material but I would suggest you to refer RBI website for this module. In this module focus more on Case Studies as compared to theoretical questions. Do not skip this module as it is much important for exam as well as knowledge point of view. No need to read McMillan line by line.

Overall you have to keep balance between theoretical reading as well as case studies/numerical since the paper would contain 40-45% case studies. N.S.Toor book contains good case studies and MCQs. Also there are many resources available on the internet from where you will get case studies for this module. After giving this paper you will realized that BFM is easier as compared to ABM and no need to worry for BFM.

Caiib ABM strategy

 CAIIB ABM Strategy

ABM is one of the compulsory subjects for CAIIB. Most of the people find difficult to clear this paper. Today, I will tell you how to study for ABM subject.

This subject also contains 4 modules

MODULE – A: Economic Analysis

MODULE – B : Business Mathematics

MODULE – C : HRM in banks

MODULE – D : Credit Management

As we are bank employees we get very less time for study, so how to decide which topics to be read, which topics to be skipped?

-As I had told you in my previous blog article that generally paper consists of 60% theoretical & 40% numerical or case studies, so choose the module to be study in deep so as to clear the paper easily depending upon your personal strength and weakness.

If you observed all the modules, you will realize that Module A and Module C are most scoring modules. Do not skip these modules. Module B contains Business Mathematics which many people find difficult to study as the level of mathematics is tough, especially for non-engineering background people. Those who works in Credit/Loan Department will find that Module D easy as well as interesting. Module D is most important not only exam point of view but also for your daily working in Credit Department. So do not skip Module D.

IMPORTANT TOPICS FROM EACH MODULE

Module A- Supply and Demand, Money Supply and Inflation, Business Cycles, GDP Concepts and Union Budget.

No need to read McMillan Book line by line for thise module, short notes will be quite useful for studying this module. Don’t read stats given in these chapters. In GDP Concepts and Union Budget chapters numerical are asked which are quite easy provided you know the components and formula.

Module B-Time Value of Money, Sampling Methods, Simulation, Bond Investment

Don’t go to deep for study this module as mathematical calculations are difficult to understand especially for non engineering background people. Practice the examples given in McMillan. Those who are not good at math can skip this module and focus more on remaining modules.

Module C-Development of Human Resources, Human Implications of Organisations, Performamce Management, HR & IT

You need to read thoroughly all the topics from this module from McMillan. It is quite easy and theoretical only. Repeatedly read MCQs from N.S. Toor book of this module.

Module D-Overview of Credit Management, Analysis of Financial Statement, Working Capital Finance, Credit Control and Monitoring, Rehabilitation and Recovery.

Read this module from McMillan book only. The chapters in this module are not lengthy as compared to other modules. Practice Numerical from Financial statement and balance sheet.

Overall, you have to study at least three modules in detail so as to achieve the 50 score. You can choose the modules to study more depending upon your strength. I would suggest that you can keep module B at last, just read formulas from this module, as this module is quite boring, lengthy and hard to understand.

https://iibfadda.blogspot.com/

Risk management important article

 Risk Management ::( Very important content read everyone)

The growing sophistication in banking operations, online electronic banking,

improvements in information technology etc, have led to increased diversity and

complexity of risks being encountered by banks. These risks can be broadly grouped

into Credit Risk, Market Risk and Operational Risk. These risks are

interdependent and events that affect one area of risk can have ramifications for a

range of other risk categories.

Basel-I Accord: It was introduced in the year 2002-03, which covered capital

requirements for Credit Risk. The Accord prescribed CRAR of 8%, however, RBI

stipulated 9% CRAR. Subsequently, Banks were advised to maintain capital charge

for Market Risk also.

Basel-II New Capital Accord: Under this, banks have to maintain capital for Credit

Risk, Market Risk and Operational Risk w.e.f 31.03.2007. The New Capital Accord

rests on three pillars viz., Minimum Capital Requirements, Supervisory Review

Process & Market Discipline. The implementation of the capital charge for various risk

categories are Credit Risk, Market Risk and Operational Risk. Analysis of the bank’s

CRAR under should be reported to the Board at quarterly intervals.

Internal Ratings Based (IRB) Approach: Under this approach, banks must

categorise the exposures into broad classes of assets as Corporate, Sovereign, Bank,

Retail and Equity. The risk components include the measures of the Probability of

Default (PD), Loss Given Default (LGD), Exposure at Default (EAD) and Effective

Maturity (M). There are two variants i.e Foundation IRB (FIRB) and Advanced IRB.

Under FIRB, banks have to provide their own estimates of PD and to rely on

supervisory estimates for other risk components (like LGD, EAD) while under

Advanced IRB; banks have to provide their own estimates of all the risk components.

It is based on the measures of Expected Losses (EL) and Unexpected Losses (UL).

Expected Losses are to be taken care of by way of pricing and provisioning while the

risk weight function produces the capital requirements for Unexpected Losses.

Market Risk: It is a risk pertaining to the interest rate related instruments and

equities in the Trading Book i.e AFS (Available For Sale) and HFT (Held for Trading)

positions and Foreign Exchange Risk throughout the bank (both banking & trading

books). There are two approaches for measuring market risk viz., Standardized

Duration Approach & Internal Models Approach.

Operational Risk: Banks have to maintain capital charge for operational risk under

the new framework and the approaches suggested for calculation of the same are –

Basic Indicator Approach and The Standardized Approach. Under the first approach,

banks must hold capital equal to 15% of the previous three years average positive

gross annual income as a point of entry for capital calculation. The second approach

suggests dividing the bank’s business into eight lines and separate weights are

assigned to each segment. The total capital charge is calculated as the three year

average of the simple summation of the regulatory capital charges across each of the

business lines in each year.

Advanced Measurement Approach (AMA): Under this, the regulatory capital

requirement will equal the risk measure generated by the bank’s internal operational

risk measurement system using certain quantitative and qualitative criteria. Tracking

of internal loss event data is essential for adopting this approach. When a bank first

moves to AMA, a three-year historical loss data window is acceptable.

Pillar 2 – Internal Capital Adequacy Assessment Process (ICAAP): Under this,

the regulator is cast with the responsibility of ensuring that banks maintain sufficient

capital to meet all the risks and operate above the minimum regulatory capital

ratios. RBI also has to ensure that the banks maintain adequate capital to withstandthe risks such as Interest Rate Risk in Banking Book, Business Cycles Risk, and

Credit Concentration Risk etc. For Interest Rate Risk in Banking Book, the regulator

may ensure that the banks are holding sufficient capital to withstand a standardized

Interest Rate shock of 2%. Banks whose capital funds would decline by 20% when

the shock is applied are treated as ‘Outlier Banks’. The assessment is reviewed at

quarterly intervals.

Pillar 3 – Disclosure Requirements: It is aimed to encourage market discipline by

developing a set of disclosure requirements which will allow market participants to

assess the key pieces of information on the capital, risk exposures, risk assessment

processes and hence the capital adequacy of the institution. Banks may make their

annual disclosures both in their Annual Reports as well as their respective websites.

Banks with capital funds of `500 crore or more, and their significant bank

subsidiaries, must disclose their Tier-I Capital, Total Capital, total required capital

and Tier-I ratio and total capital adequacy ratio, on a quarterly basis on their

respective websites. The disclosures are broadly classified into Quantitative and

Qualitative disclosures and classified into the following areas:

Area Coverage

Capital Capital structure & Capital adequacy

Risk Exposures &

Assessments

Qualitative disclosures for Credit, Market, Operational,

Banking Book interest rate risk, equity risk etc.

Credit Risk General disclosures for all banks.

Disclosures for Standardised & IRB approaches.

Credit Risk Mitigation Disclosures for Standardised and IRB approaches.

Securitisation Disclosures for Standardised and IRB approaches.

Market Risk Disclosures for the Standardised & Internal Models

Approaches.

Operational Risk The approach followed for capital assessment.

Equities Disclosures for banking book positions

Interest Rate Risk in

the Banking Book

(IRRBB)

Nature of IRRBB with key assumptions. The increase /

decrease in earnings / economic value for upward /

downward rate shocks.

The Basel-II norms are much better than Basel-I since it covers operational risk.

However, risks such as Reputation Risk, Systemic Risk and Strategic Risk (the risk of

losses or reduced earnings due to failures in implementing strategy) are not covered

and exposing the banks to financial shocks. As per Basel all corporate loans attracts

8 percent capital allocation where as it is in the range of 1 to 30 percent in case of

individuals depending on the estimated risk. Further, group loans attract very low

internal capital charge and the bank has a strong incentive to undertake regulatory

capital arbitrage to structure the risk position to lower regulatory risk category.

Regulatory capital arbitrage acts as a safety valve for attenuating the adverse effects

of those regulatory capital requirements that activity’s underlying economic risk.

Absence of such arbitrage, a regulatory capital requirement that is inappropriately

high for the economic risk of a particular activity could cause a bank to exit that

relatively low-risk business by preventing the bank from earning an acceptable rate

of return on its capital.

Nominally high regulatory capital ratios can be used to mask the true level of

insolvency probability. For example – Bank maintains 12% capital as per the norms

risk analysis calls for 15% capital. In a regulatory sense the bank is well capitalized

but it is to be treated as undercapitalized from risk perspective.

Basel-III is a comprehensive set of reform measures developed to strengthen the

regulation, supervision and risk management of the banking sector. The new

standards will considerably strengthen the reserve requirements, both by increasing

the reserve ratios and by tightening the definition of what constitutes capital. The

new norms will be made effective in a phased manner from 1st July 2013 and

implemented fully by 31st March 2019 and banks should maintain minimum 5.5% in

common equity (as against 3.6% now) by 31st March 2015 and create a Capital

Conservation Buffer (CCB) of 2.5% by 31st March 2019. Further, banks should

maintain a minimum overall capital adequacy of 11.5% by 31st March 2019 and

supplement risk based capital ratios by maintaining a leverage ratio of 4.5%. These

measures will ensure well capitalization of banks to manage all kinds of risks besides

to bring in more clarity by clearly defining different kinds of capital.

Counter Cyclical Capital Buffer (CCCB): The objective of CCCB is twofold viz., it

requires banks to build up a buffer of capital in good times which may be used to

maintain flow of credit to the real sector in difficult times and also to achieve the

broader macro-prudential goal of restricting the banking sector from indiscriminate

lending in the periods of excess credit growth that have often been associated with

the building up of system-wide risk. It may be maintained in the form of Common

Equity Tier-1 capital or other fully loss absorbing capital only and the amount of the

CCCB may vary from 0 to 2.5% of total risk weighted assets of the banks. RBI

intends banks to have a sustainable funding structure. This would reduce the

possibility of banks’ liquidity position eroding due to disruptions in their regular

sources of funding thus increasing the risk of failure leading to broader systemic

stress. The Basel committee on banking supervision framed two ratios viz., Liquidity

Coverage Ratio (LCR) and Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR) as part of global

regulatory standards on liquidity to be implemented from 1st January 2018.

i) Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR): In order to promote short-term resilience of

the liquidity risk profile of banks, RBI has introduced LCR in a phased manner,

starting with a minimum requirement of 60% from 1st January 2015, and reaching a

maximum of 100% by 1st January 2019. The LCR will ensure that banks have an

adequate stock of unencumbered high-quality liquid assets that can be converted

easily and immediately in private markets into cash to meet their liquidity needs for

a 30-calendar day liquidity stress scenario.

 ii) Net Stable Funding Ratio (NSFR): The ratio seeks to ensure that banks

maintain stable source of funding with respect to the profile of their assets (loans

and investments) and off-balance sheet activities such as extending asset

management and brokerage services to the clients. The NSFR should be 100% on an

ongoing basis. It limits over reliance on short-term wholesale funding, encourages

better assessment of funding risks across all assets and off-balance sheet items and

promotes funding stability.

Tier – I capital consists of Paid up Equity Capital + Free Reserves + Balance in

Share Premium Account + Capital Reserves (surplus) arising out of sale proceeds of

assets but not created by revaluation of assets MINUS Accumulated loss + Book

value of Intangible Assets + Equity Investment in Subsidiaries+ Innovative Perpetual

Debt instruments.

Tier – II consists of Cumulative perpetual preferential shares & other Hybrid debt

capital instruments + Revaluation reserves + General Provisions + Loss Reserves

(up to maximum 1.25% of weighted risk assets) + Undisclosed Reserves +

Subordinated Debt + Upper Tier-II instruments. Subordinated Debts are unsecured

and subordinated to the claims of all the creditors. To be eligible for Tier-II capital

the instruments should be fully paid, free from restrictive clauses and should not be

redeemable at the instance of holder or without the consent of the Bank supervisory

authorities. Subordinated debt usually carries a fixed maturity and they will have to

be limited to 50% of Tier-I capital.

However, due to the stress on account of rollover of demonetization and GST, the

implementation of Basel-III norms may slightly be delayed and the regulator likely to

inform the timeframe shortly.

Economic Capital (EC) is a measure of risk expressed in terms of capital. A bank

may, for instance, wonder what level of capital is needed in order to remain solvent

at a certain level of confidence and time horizon. In other words, EC may be

considered as the amount of risk capital from the banks’ perspective; therefore,

it differs from Regulatory Capital (RC) requirement measures. It primarily aims to

support business decisions, while RC aims to set minimum capital requirements

against all risks in a bank under a range of regulatory rules and guidance. So far, EC

is rather a bank-specific or internal measure of available capital and there is no

common domestic or global definition of EC. The estimates of EC can be covered by

elements of Tier-1, 2 & 3, or definitions used by rating agencies and/or other types

of capital, such as planned earning, unrealized profit or implicit government

guarantee. EC is highly relevant because it can provide key answers to specific

business decisions or for evaluating the different business units of a bank.

Dynamic Provisioning: At present, banks generally make two types of provisions

viz., general provisions on standard assets and specific provisions on non-performing

assets (NPAs). The present provisioning framework does not have countercyclical or

cycle smoothening elements. Though the RBI has been following a policy of

countercyclical variation of standard asset provisioning rates, the methodology has

been largely based on current available data and judgment, rather than on an

analysis of credit cycles and loss history. Since the level of NPAs varies through the

economic cycle, the resultant level of specific provisions also behaves cyclically.

Consequently, lower provisioning during upturns, and higher provisioning during

downturns have pro-cyclical effect on the real economy. However, few banks have

started making floating provisions without any predetermined rules; many banks are

away from the concept which has become difficult for inter-bank comparison. In the

above backdrop, RBI introduced dynamic provisioning framework for Indian banks to

address pro-cyclicality of capital and provisioning to meet the international

standards. Recently, RBI has allowed banks to recognize some of their assets like

real estate, foreign currency and deferred tax, reducing the extra capital needs of

state-owned banks by 15 per cent. The move is aimed to align the regulatory capital

of banks with the Basel-III standards.

Leverage Ratio: It is the tier-1 capital divided by the sum of on-balance sheet

exposures, derivative exposures, securities financing transaction exposures and off-

balance sheet items. This ratio is calibrated to act as a credible supplementary

measure to the risk based capital requirements with the objective to constrain the

build-up of leverage in the banking sector to avert destabilizing deleveraging

processes for the sound financial economy and to reinforce the risk based

requirements with a simple, non-risk based “backstop” measure. The desirable

exposure should be within 25 times of tier-1 capital.

Banks in India need substantial capital funds in the ensuing years mainly to fund the

credit growth which is likely to grow at around 15% to 20% p.a. and banks are

required to set aside a portion of capital for the said purpose. Banks also need

additional capital to write off bad loans as well as to meet the operational risks on

account of weaker implementation of systems and procedures. More importantly, the

implementation of Basel-III norms warrants pumping of substantial capital funds.

Raising these funds, though, will require several steps, apart from legislative

changes as Public Sector Banks can not dilute its equity below 51%. Attracting

private capital warrants minimum governance and structural reforms. It is also

proposed to create an independent Bank Holding Company to invite private capital

without diluting the equity to address the issue.

Risk Management::(Most Important)

 01 RBI implemented the Basel-III recommendations in India, w.e.f:

a) 01.01.2013, b. 31.03.2013, c. 01.04.2013, d. 30.09.2013
02 Basel III recommendations shall be completely implemented in India by:
31.03.2020, b. 31.03.2019 c. 31.03.2618 d. 31.03.2017
03 Basel III capital regulations were released by Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) during as a
Global Regulatory Framework for more resilient banks and banking systems:
December 2010, b. March 2011, c. December 2011, d. December 2012

Risk management very Important Terms

   Risk management very  Important Terms 

Capital Funds

Equity contribution of owners. The basic approach of capital adequacy framework is that a bank should have sufficient capital to provide a stable resource to absorb any losses arising from the risks in its business. Capital is divided into different tiers according to the characteristics / qualities of each qualifying instrument. For supervisory purposes capital is split into two categories: Tier I and Tier II. 

Tier I Capital

A term used to refer to one of the components of regulatory capital. It consists mainly of share capital and disclosed reserves (minus goodwill, if any). Tier I items are deemed to be of the highest quality because they are fully available to cover losses Hence it is also termed as core capital. 

Tier II Capital

Refers to one of the components of regulatory capital. Also known as supplementary capital, it consists of certain reserves and certain types of subordinated debt. Tier II items qualify as regulatory capital to the extent that they can be used to absorb losses arising from a bank's activities. Tier II's capital loss absorption capacity is lower than that of Tier I capital. 

Revaluation reserves

Revaluation reserves are a part of Tier-II capital. These reserves arise from revaluation of assets that are undervalued on the bank's books, typically bank premises and marketable securities. The extent to which the revaluation reserves can be relied upon as a cushion for unexpected losses depends mainly upon the level of certainty that can be placed on estimates of the market values of the relevant assets and the subsequent deterioration in values under difficult market conditions or in a forced sale. 

Leverage

Ratio of assets to capital. 

Capital reserves

That portion of a company's profits not paid out as dividends to shareholders. They are also known as undistributable reserves and are ploughed back into the business. 

Deferred Tax Assets

Unabsorbed depreciation and carry forward of losses which can be set-off against future taxable income which is considered as timing differences result in deferred tax assets. The deferred Tax Assets are accounted as per the Accounting Standard 22. 

Deferred Tax Liabilities

Deferred tax liabilities have an effect of increasing future year's income tax payments, which indicates that they are accrued income taxes and meet definition of liabilities. 

Subordinated debt

Refers to the status of the debt. In the event of the bankruptcy or liquidation of the debtor, subordinated debt only has a secondary claim on repayments, after other debt has been repaid. 

Hybrid debt capital instruments

In this category, fall a number of capital instruments, which combine certain characteristics of equity and certain characteristics of debt. Each has a particular feature, which can be considered to affect its quality as capital. Where these instruments have close similarities to equity, in particular when they are able to support losses on an ongoing basis without triggering liquidation, they may be included in Tier II capital. 

BASEL Committee on Banking Supervision

The BASEL Committee is a committee of bank supervisors consisting of members from each of the G10 countries. The Committee is a forum for discussion on the handling of specific supervisory problems. It coordinates the sharing of supervisory responsibilities among national authorities in respect of banks' foreign establishments with the aim of ensuring effective supervision of banks' activities worldwide. 

BASEL Capital accord

The BASEL Capital Accord is an Agreement concluded among country representatives in 1988 to develop standardised risk-based capital requirements for banks across countries. The Accord was replaced with a new capital adequacy framework (BASEL II), published in June 2004. BASEL II is based on three mutually reinforcing pillars hat allow banks and supervisors to evaluate properly the various risks that banks face. These three pillars are:

Minimum capital requirements, which seek to refine the present measurement framework

supervisory review of an institution's capital adequacy and internal assessment process;

market discipline through effective disclosure to encourage safe and sound banking practices 

Risk Weighted Asset

The notional amount of the asset is multiplied by the risk weight assigned to the asset to arrive at the risk weighted asset number. Risk weight for different assets vary e.g. 0% on a Government Dated Security and 20% on a AAA rated foreign bank etc. 

CRAR(Capital to Risk Weighted Assets Ratio)

Capital to risk weighted assets ratio is arrived at by dividing the capital of the bank with aggregated risk weighted assets for credit risk, market risk and operational risk. The higher the CRAR of a bank the better capitalized it is. 

Credit Risk

The risk that a party to a contractual agreement or transaction will be unable to meet its obligations or will default on commitments. Credit risk can be associated with almost any financial transaction. BASEL-II provides two options for measurement of capital charge for credit risk 

1.standardised approach (SA) - Under the SA, the banks use a risk-weighting schedule for measuring the credit risk of its assets by assigning risk weights based on the rating assigned by the external credit rating agencies.

2. Internal rating based approach (IRB) - The IRB approach, on the other hand, allows banks to use their own internal ratings of counterparties and exposures, which permit a finer differentiation of risk for various exposures and hence delivers capital requirements that are better aligned to the degree of risks. The IRB approaches are of two types:

a) Foundation IRB (FIRB):The bank estimates the Probability of Default (PD) associated with each borrower, and the supervisor supplies other inputs such as Loss Given Default (LGD) and Exposure At Default (EAD). 

b) Advanced IRB (AIRB):In addition to Probability of Default (PD), the bank estimates other inputs such as EAD and LGD. The requirements for this approach are more exacting. The adoption of advanced approaches would require the banks to meet minimum requirements relating to internal ratings at the outset and on an ongoing basis such as those relating to the design of the rating system, operations, controls, corporate governance, and estimation and validation of credit risk components, viz., PD for both FIRB and AIRB and LGD and EAD for AIRB. The banks should have, at the minimum, PD data for five years and LGD and EAD data for seven years. In India, banks have been advised to compute capital requirements for credit risk adopting the SA. 

Market risk

Market risk is defined as the risk of loss arising from movements in market prices or rates away from the rates or prices set out in a transaction or agreement. The capital charge for market risk was introduced by the BASEL Committee on Banking Supervision through the Market Risk Amendment of January 1996 to the capital accord of 1988 (BASEL I Framework). There are two methodologies available to estimate the capital requirement to cover market risks: 

1) The Standardised Measurement Method: This method, currently implemented by the Reserve Bank, adopts a 'building block' approach for interest-rate related and equity instruments which differentiate capital requirements for 'specific risk' from those of 'general market risk'. The 'specific risk charge' is designed to protect against an adverse movement in the price of an individual security due to factors related to the individual issuer. The 'general market risk charge' is designed to protect against the interest rate risk in the portfolio.

2) The Internal Models Approach (IMA): This method enables banks to use their proprietary in-house method which must meet the qualitative and quantitative criteria set out by the BCBS and is subject to the explicit approval of the supervisory authority. 

Operational Risk

The revised BASEL II framework offers the following three approaches for estimating capital charges for operational risk:

1) The Basic Indicator Approach (BIA): This approach sets a charge for operational risk as a fixed percentage ("alpha factor") of a single indicator, which serves as a proxy for the bank's risk exposure. 

2) The Standardised Approach (SA): This approach requires that the institution separate its operations into eight standard business lines, and the capital charge for each business line is calculated by multiplying gross income of that business line by a factor (denoted beta) assigned to that business line.

3) Advanced Measurement Approach (AMA): Under this approach, the regulatory capital requirement will equal the risk measure generated by the banks' internal operational risk measurement system. In India, the banks have been advised to adopt the BIA to estimate the capital charge for operational risk and 15% of average gross income of last three years is taken for calculating capital charge for operational risk. 

Internal Capital Adequacy Assessment Process (ICAAP)

In terms of the guidelines on BASEL II, the banks are required to have a board-approved policy on internal capital adequacy assessment process (ICAAP) to assess the capital requirement as per ICAAP at the solo as well as consolidated level. The ICAAP is required to form an integral part of the management and decision-making culture of a bank. ICAAP document is required to clearly demarcate the quantifiable and qualitatively assessed risks. The ICAAP is also required to include stress tests and scenario analyses, to be conducted periodically, particularly in respect of the bank's material risk exposures, in order to evaluate the potential vulnerability of the bank to some unlikely but plausible events or movements in the market conditions that could have an adverse impact on the bank's capital. 

Supervisory Review Process (SRP)

Supervisory review process envisages the establishment of suitable risk management systems in banks and their review by the supervisory authority. The objective of the SRP is to ensure that the banks have adequate capital to support all the risks in their business as also to encourage them to develop and use better risk management techniques for monitoring and managing their risks. 

Market Discipline

Market Discipline seeks to achieve increased transparency through expanded disclosure requirements for banks. 

Credit risk mitigation

Techniques used to mitigate the credit risks through exposure being collateralised in whole or in part with cash or securities or guaranteed by a third party. 

Mortgage Back Security

A bond-type security in which the collateral is provided by a pool of mortgages. Income from the underlying mortgages is used to meet interest and principal repayments. 

Derivative

A derivative instrument derives its value from an underlying product. There are basically three derivatives 

a) Forward Contract- A forward contract is an agreement between two parties to buy or sell an agreed amount of a commodity or financial instrument at an agreed price, for delivery on an agreed future date. Future Contract- Is a standardized exchange tradable forward contract executed at an exchange. In contrast to a futures contract, a forward contract is not transferable or exchange tradable, its terms are not standardized and no margin is exchanged. The buyer of the forward contract is said to be long on the contract and the seller is said to be short on the contract.

b) Options- An option is a contract which grants the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to buy (call option) or sell (put option) an asset, commodity, currency or financial instrument at an agreed rate (exercise price) on or before an agreed date (expiry or settlement date). The buyer pays the seller an amount called the premium in exchange for this right. This premium is the price of the option.

c) Swaps- Is an agreement to exchange future cash flow at pre-specified Intervals. Typically one cash flow is based on a variable price and other on affixed one. 

Duration

Duration (Macaulay duration) measures the price volatility of fixed income securities. It is often used in the comparison of interest rate risk between securities with different coupons and different maturities. It is defined as the weighted average time to cash flows of a bond where the weights are nothing but the present value of the cash flows themselves. It is expressed in years. The duration of a fixed income security is always shorter than its term to maturity, except in the case of zero coupon securities where they are the same. 

Modified Duration

Modified Duration = Macaulay Duration/ (1+y/m), where 'y' is the yield (%), 'm' is the number of times compounding occurs in a year. For example if interest is paid twice a year m=2. Modified Duration is a measure of the percentage change in price of a bond for a 1% change in yield. 

Non Performing Assets (NPA)

An asset, including a leased asset, becomes non performing when it ceases to generate income for the bank. 

Net NPA

Gross NPA - (Balance in Interest Suspense account + DICGC/ECGC claims received and held pending adjustment + Part payment received and kept in suspense account + Total provisions held). 

Coverage Ratio

Equity minus net NPA divided by total assets minus intangible assets. 

Slippage Ratio

(Fresh accretion of NPAs during the year/Total standard assets at the beginning of the year)*100 

Restructuring

A restructured account is one where the bank, grants to the borrower concessions that the bank would not otherwise consider. Restructuring would normally involve modification of terms of the advances/securities, which would generally include, among others, alteration of repayment period/ repayable amount/ the amount of installments and rate of interest. It is a mechanism to nurture an otherwise viable unit, which has been adversely impacted, back to health. 

Substandard Assets

A substandard asset would be one, which has remained NPA for a period less than or equal to 12 months. Such an asset will have well defined credit weaknesses that jeopardize the liquidation of the debt and are characterised by the distinct possibility that the banks will sustain some loss, if deficiencies are not corrected. 

Doubtful Asset

An asset would be classified as doubtful if it has remained in the substandard category for a period of 12 months. A loan classified as doubtful has all the weaknesses inherent in assets that were classified as substandard, with the added characteristic that the weaknesses make collection or liquidation in full, - on the basis of currently known facts, conditions and values - highly questionable and improbable. 


Loss Asset

A loss asset is one where loss has been identified by the bank or internal or external auditors or the RBI inspection but the amount has not been written off wholly. In other words, such an asset is considered uncollectible and of such little value that its continuance as a bankable asset is not warranted although there may be some salvage or recovery value. 

Off Balance Sheet Exposure

Off-Balance Sheet exposures refer to the business activities of a bank that generally do not involve booking assets (loans) and taking deposits. Off-balance sheet activities normally generate fees, but produce liabilities or assets that are deferred or contingent and thus, do not appear on the institution's balance sheet until and unless they become actual assets or liabilities. 

Current Exposure Method



The credit equivalent amount of a market related off-balance sheet transaction is calculated using the current exposure method by adding the current credit exposure to the potential future credit exposure of these contracts. Current credit exposure is defined as the sum of the positive mark to market value of a contract. The Current Exposure Method requires periodical calculation of the current credit exposure by marking the contracts to market, thus capturing the current credit exposure. Potential future credit exposure is determined by multiplying the notional principal amount of each of these contracts irrespective of whether the contract has a zero, positive or negative mark-to-market value by the relevant add-on factor prescribed by RBI, according to the nature and residual maturity of the instrument. 

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